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El-Aslam- External links -Further reading-Encyclopedias-Encyclopedias-References
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Notes

  1. ^ USC-MSA Compendium of Muslim Texts
  2. ^ a b L. Gardet; J. Jomier "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. 
  3. ^ "Lane's lexicon" (PDF). Retrieved on 2007-07-03.
  4. ^ "Major Religions of the World—Ranked by Number of Adherents" (HTML). Retrieved on 2007-07-03.
  5. ^ See:
  6. ^ a b See:
    • Accad (2003): According to Ibn Taymiya, although only some Muslims accept the textual veracity of the entire Bible, most Muslims will grant the veracity of most of it.
    • Esposito (1998), pp.6,12
    • Esposito (2002b), pp.4–5
    • F. E. Peters (2003), p.9
    • F. Buhl; A. T. Welch "Muhammad". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. 
    • Hava Lazarus-Yafeh "Tahrif". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. 
  7. ^ Esposito (2002b), p.17
  8. ^ See:
    • Esposito (2002b), pp.111,112,118
    • "Shari'ah". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. 
  9. ^ See:
    • Esposito (2002b), p.21
    • Esposito (2004), pp.2,43
  10. ^ See these figures
  11. ^ Qur'an 6:125, Qur'an 61:7, Qur'an 39:22
  12. ^ Qur'an 5:3, Qur'an 3:19, Qur'an 3:83
  13. ^ See:
  14. ^ Cyril Glassé, The Concise Encyclopedia of Islam, p. 192
  15. ^ Qur'an 2:4, Qur'an 2:285, Qur'an 4:136
  16. ^ Sahih Muslim 1:1
  17. ^ See:
    • Farah (2003), p.109
    • Momen (1987), p.176
  18. ^ Esposito (2004), pp.17,18,21
  19. ^ See:
    • Momem (1987), p.176
    • "Islam". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-20. 
  20. ^ Qur'an 30:30
  21. ^ See:
  22. ^ "Islam", Encyclopedia of Religion
  23. ^ See:
    • "Islam and Christianity", Encyclopedia of Christianity (2001): Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews also refer to God as Allāh.
    • L. Gardet "Allah". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. 
  24. ^ David Thomas "Tathlith, Trinity". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-11. : Contrary to Muslim understanding, some scholars have suggested that the Qur'an only opposes certain deviant forms of Trinitarian belief.
  25. ^ See:
    • Qur'an 112:1–4
    • Esposito (2002b), pp.74–76
    • Esposito (2004), p.22
    • Griffith (2006), p.248
    • D. Gimaret "Allah, Tawhid". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. 
  26. ^ "Qur'an". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-17. 
  27. ^ See:
    • William Montgomery Watt in The Cambridge History of Islam, p.32
    • Richard Bell, William Montgomery Watt, Introduction to the Qur'an, p.51
    • F. E. Peters (1991), pp.3–5: "Few have failed to be convinced that … the Quran is … the words of Muhammad, perhaps even dictated by him after their recitation."
  28. ^ See:
    • "Islam". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-17. 
    • "Qur'an". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-17. 
  29. ^ Esposito (2004), p.79
  30. ^ See:
    • Esposito (2004), pp.79–81
    • "Tafsir". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-17. 
  31. ^ See:
    • Teece (2003), pp.12,13
    • C. Turner (2006), p.42
    • "Qur'an". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. : The word Qur'an was invented and first used in the Qur'an itself. There are two different theories about this term and its formation.
  32. ^ Qur'an 21:19–20, Qur'an 35:1
  33. ^ See:
    • Qur'an 35:1
    • Esposito (2002b), pp.26–28
    • W. Madelung "Malā'ika". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. 
    • Gisela Webb "Angel". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. 
  34. ^ See:
    • Esposito (1998), p.12
    • Esposito (2002b), pp.4–5
    • F. E. Peters (2003), p.9
    • "Muhammad". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-17. 
  35. ^ See:
    • Qur'an 18:110
    • F. Buhl; A. T. Welch "Muhammad". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. 
  36. ^ See:
    • F.E.Peters(2003), pp.78,79,194
    • Lapidus (2002), pp.23–28
  37. ^ F. Buhl; A. T. Welch "Muhammad". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. 
  38. ^ See:
    • Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World (2003), p.666
    • J. Robson "Hadith". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. 
    • D. W. Brown "Sunna". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. 
  39. ^ See:
    • "Resurrection", The New Encyclopedia of Islam (2003)
    • "Avicenna". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. : Ibn Sīnā, Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn b. ʿAbd Allāh b. Sīnā is known in the West as "Avicenna".
    • L. Gardet "Qiyama". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. 
  40. ^ Qur'an 9:72
  41. ^ See:
    • Smith (2006), p.89; Encyclopedia of Islam and Muslim World, p.565
    • "Heaven", The Columbia Encyclopedia (2000)
    • Asma Afsaruddin "Garden". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-08. 
    • "Paradise". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. 
  42. ^ See:
    • Qur'an 9:51
    • D. Cohen-Mor (2001), p.4: "The idea of predestination is reinforced by the frequent mention of events 'being written' or 'being in a book' before they happen: 'Say: "Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us…" ' "
    • Ahmet T. Karamustafa "Fate". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. : The verb qadara literally means "to measure, to determine". Here it is used to mean that "God measures and orders his creation".
  43. ^ See:
    • Farah (2003), pp.119–122
    • Patton (1900), p.130
  44. ^ Momen (1987), pp.177,178
  45. ^ See:
    • Momem (1987), p.178
    • "Pillars of Islam". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. 
  46. ^ See:
    • Farah (1994), p.135
    • Momen (1987), p.178
    • "Islam", Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals(2004)
  47. ^ See:
    • Esposito (2002b), pp.18,19
    • Hedáyetullah (2006), pp.53–55
    • Kobeisy (2004), pp.22–34
    • Momen (1987), p.178
  48. ^ See:
    • Qur'an 2:177
    • Esposito (2004), p.90
    • Momen (1987), p.179
    • "Zakat". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-11. 
    • "Zakat". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. 
  49. ^ See:
  50. ^ See:
    • Farah (1994), pp.145–147
    • Goldschmidt (2005), p.48
    • "Hajj". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. 
  51. ^ Momen (1987), p.180
  52. ^ "Shari'ah". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. 
  53. ^ See:
    • Menski (2006), p.290
    • B. Carra de Vaux; J. Schacht, A.M. Goichon "Hadd". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. 
    • N. Calder; M. B. Hooker "Sharia". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. 
  54. ^ Weiss (2002), pp.xvii,162
  55. ^ See:
    • Esposito (2004), p. 84
    • Lapidus (2002), pp. 502–507,845
    • Lewis (2003), p. 100
  56. ^ See:
  57. ^ Esposito (2003), p.93
  58. ^ Firestone (1999) pp. 17-18
  59. ^ Reuven Firestone (1999), The Meaning of Jihād, p. 17-18
  60. ^ Britannica Encyclopedia, Jihad
  61. ^ See:
    • Brockopp (2003) pp. 99–100
    • Esposito (2003), p.93
    • "jihad". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-06-13. 
  62. ^ See:
    • Firestone (1999) p.17
    • "Djihad", Encyclopedia of Islam Online.
  63. ^ Firestone (1999) p.17
  64. ^ a b "Djihād". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. 
  65. ^ Knowing the Enemy: Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror, Mary R. Habeck, Yale University Press, p.108-109, 118
  66. ^ cf. Sachedina (1998) p. 105 and 106
  67. ^ See:
    • Lapidus (2002), pp.50,112,197,380,489,578,817
    • Lewis (2004), pp.29,51–56
  68. ^ See:
    • Holt (1977a), p.57
    • Hourani (2003), p.22
    • Lapidus (2002), p.32
    • Madelung (1996), p.43
    • Tabatabaei (1979), p.30–50
  69. ^ See
    • Holt (1977a), p.74
    • L. Gardet; J. Jomier "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. 
  70. ^ Holt (1977a), pp.67–72
  71. ^ Waines (2003) p.46
  72. ^ Donald Puchala, ‘’Theory and History in International Relations,’’ page 137. Routledge, 2003.
  73. ^ See:
    • Lapidus (2002), pp.90,91
    • "Sufism". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-13. 
  74. ^ Hawting (2000), p.4
  75. ^ Lapidus (2002), p.56; Lewis (1993), pp. 71–83
  76. ^ See:
    • Holt (1977a), pp.80,92,105
    • Holt (1977b), pp.661–663
    • Lapidus (2002), p.56
    • Lewis (1993), p.84
    • L. Gardet; J. Jomier "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. 
  77. ^ See:
    • Lapidus (2002), p.103–143
    • "Abbasid Dynasty". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. 
  78. ^ Lapidus (2002), p.86
  79. ^ See:
    • Lapidus (2002), p.160
    • Waines (2003) p.126,127
  80. ^ See:
    • Esposito (2004), pp.44–45
    • Lapidus (2002), pp.90–94
    • "Sufism". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. 
  81. ^ Tolan (2002) xv, xvi, 41
  82. ^ See:
    • Novak (February 1999)
    • Sahas (1997), pp.76–80
  83. ^ Lapidus (2002), pp.288–290,310
  84. ^ See:
    • Lapidus (2002), p.292
    • "Islamic World". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. 
  85. ^ See
    • Holt (1977a), p.263
    • Lapidus (2002), p.250
    • "Istanbul". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. 
  86. ^ Esposito (2004), pp.104,105
  87. ^ "Islamic Art". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. 
  88. ^ Esposito (2004), p.65
  89. ^ See:
    • Lapidus (2002), pp.198,234,244,245,254
    • L. Gardet; J. Jomier "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. 
  90. ^ Ikram, S. M. 1964. Muslim Civilization in India. New York: Columbia University Press
  91. ^ Lapidus (2002), pp.358,378–380,624
  92. ^ See:
    • Lapidus (2002), p.572
    • Watt (1973), p.18: Wahhabism should not be confused with the early Kharijite sect of Wahabiyya, which was named after Abd-Allah ibn-Wahb ar-Rasibi, who opposed Ali at Nahrawan.
  93. ^ Lapidus (2002), pp.380,489–493
  94. ^ [1] New Turkey
  95. ^ Lapidus (2002), pp.281–282,380,489–493,556,578,823,835
  96. ^ Muslim Minorities in the West: Visible and Invisible By Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, Jane I. Smith, pg 271
  97. ^ Bulliet, Richard, Pamela Crossley, Daniel Headrick, Steven Hirsch, Lyman Johnson, and David Northrup. The Earth and Its Peoples. 3. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2005. ISBN 0618427708
  98. ^ Organization of the Islamic Conference
  99. ^ See:
    • Esposito (2004), pp.118,119,179
    • Lapidus (2002), pp.823–830
  100. ^ See:
  101. ^ For example see Major Themes of the Qur'an by Fazlur Rahman Malik in which he argues against the treatment of the Qur'an as either a piecemeal or an evolutionary progression of ideas. See review by William A. Graham (1983), p.446.
  102. ^ For example see The Spirit of Islam by Syed Ameer Ali (1849-1928). It is described by David Samuel Margoliouth (1905) as "probably the best achievement in the way of an apology for Mohammed". See Margoliouth, preface Mohammed and the Rise of Islam.
  103. ^ Westerlund (2003)
  104. ^ Elizabeth Omara-Otunnu (2003-11-17). "Ramadan Awareness Event Designed To Debunk Negative Images", Advance, University of Connecticut. 
  105. ^ Bernstein, Richard. "Experts on Islam Pointing Fingers At One Another", The New York Times. Retrieved on 2007-05-14. 
  106. ^ See:
    • Seibert (1994), pp.88–89
    • Watt (1974), p.231
  107. ^ Ernst (2004), p.11
  108. ^ a b "Number of Muslim by country". nationmaster.com. Retrieved on 2007-05-30.
  109. ^ "International Religious Freedom Report 2006—China (includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau)". U.S. department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor (2006). Retrieved on 2007-05-30.
  110. ^ See:
    • Esposito (2004) pp.2,43
    • "Islamic World". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. 
    "Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents". Adherents.com. Retrieved on 2007-01-09.
  111. ^ See:
    • J. Pedersen; R. Hillenbrand, J. Burton-Page, et al. "Masdjid". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. 
    • "Mosque". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. 
  112. ^ "al-Mar'a". Encyclopaedia of Islam
  113. ^
    • Waines (2003) pp. 93–96
    • The Oxford Dictionary of Islam (2003), p.339
    • Esposito (1998) p. 79
  114. ^ *"Talak". Encyclopaedia of Islam
  115. ^
    • Esposito (2004), pp.95,96,235–241
    • Harald Motzki "Marriage and Divorce". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an. Retrieved on 2007-05-15. 
    • Lori Peek "Marriage Practices". Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures. Retrieved on 2007-05-15. 
  116. ^ See:
    • Adil (2002), p.288
    • F. E. Peters (2003), p.67
    • B. van Dalen; R. S. Humphreys, Manuela Marín, et al. "Tarikh̲". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. 
  117. ^ Ghamidi (2001): Customs and Behavioral Laws
  118. ^ Friedmann (2003), pp. 14–16
  119. ^ Friedmann (2003), pp. 18–19
  120. ^ Friedmann (2003), p. 18
  121. ^ Friedmann (2003), p. 35
  122. ^ See:
    • Friedmann (2003), p. 35;
    • Lewis (1984), p. 39
  123. ^ See:
    • Lewis (1984), pp.9, 27, 36;
    • Friedmann (2003), p. 37;
  124. ^ Ernst (2005), Following Muhammad, p.46
  125. ^ Lewis (2001), p.273
  126. ^ Friedmann (2003), p. 55
  127. ^ "Aman", Encyclopaedia of Islam
  128. ^ A woman who apostasizes is to be executed according to some jurists, or imprisoned according to others.
  129. ^ "Murtadd", Encyclopedia of Islam
  130. ^ Encyclopedia of Islam, "Sikhs"
  131. ^ See:
  132. ^ See:
    • Esposito (2003), pp.275,306
    • "Shariah". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. 
    • "Sunnite". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. 
  133. ^ See
    • Lapidus (2002), p.46
    • "Imam". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. 
    • "Shi'ite". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-05-02. 
  134. ^ Imamat, by Naser Makarem Shirazi
  135. ^ See:
    • Ahmed (1999), pp.44–45
    • Nasr (1994), p.466
  136. ^ See:
  137. ^ Trimingham (1998), p.1
  138. ^ See:
    • Esposito (2003), p.302
    • Malik (2006), p.3
    • B. S. Turner (1998), p.145
    • "Afghanistan: A Country Study". Country Studies 150. U. S. Library of Congress (Federal Research Division). Retrieved on 2007-04-18.
  139. ^ See:

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